Shamans or Scientists?

As has been pointed out in the previous section, the critics of parapsychology have frequently confused the scientific study of psi phenomena with popular abuses. This is understandable insofar as the terms parapsychology, ESP, psychokinesis, psi, and PK have been appropriated by mystical and occult enthusiasts of many varieties who have no scientific interest in the field.
Fate Magazine, for example, has regularly carried advertisements for the "E.S.P. Laboratory" in Los Angeles, which offers instruction in "white witchcraft," the "miracle of universal psychic power," the "miracle of new Ishtar power," and "gnostic magic." The advertisements begin with the bold words, "NO HOGWASH," and the casual reader of Fate (circulation approximately 100,000), including some undoubtedly outraged rationalists, might well be led to believe that this is what scientific parapsychology supports-along with pyramid power, dowsing, aura reading, ouija boards, crystal balls, biorhythms, astrology occult masters, "ancient secrets," tarot, numerology, psychic readings, and correspondence course doctoral degrees in metaphysics.

The problem is insidious, as this confusion is fostered not only by both overzealous believers and overzealous skeptics of parapsychology - but also by the theoretical controversies within parapsychology itself. Such associations have touched the raw nerves of many parapsychologists, inspiring an urgent need to create as much distance as they can between the scientific and the personal approaches to psi. Vessey (1969), in an article on parapsychology and the occult, puts the matter simply: "There is no common ground between the psychical researcher and the occultist, for the simple reason that the former, is attempting to pursue an exact science, whereas the latter is neither exact nor scientific." Vessey continues his analysis by dogmatically asserting that almost all interest in the occult stems from "obvious compensation for defects of personality."

While a desire for distance is understandable from a political and social perspective, this attitude has had a stifling impact on the development of the kind of disciplinary matrix within parapsychology that I'm suggesting in this book. I view popular occultism as a legitimate subject for parapsychological study from both sociological participant-observer and educational evaluation perspectives, and I see the design and implementation of psi development systems as an appropriate methodology within parapsychology.

Parapsychologists, in general, have been more concerned with establishing a domain secure from the emotionally charged attacks of their critics than in openly venturing into areas that, although they may lead to valuable data and methods, have become confused with popular superstition.

The schism has been epitomized in an article by R. A. McConnell (1973), called "Parapsychology and the Occult," published in the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research. In defining what he believed to be the proper relationship between parapsychology and the occult, McConnell stated, "We are living in a crescendo of popular superstition whose only relation to parapsychology is through the substrate of weak, sporadic, natural phenomena to which both attempt to relate. "

McConnell's article pointed out how the application of scientific method in parapsychology has become confused in the public mind with the following: "(a) by occultism among ignorant but influential public figures, (b) by educational institutions toadying to anti-intellectualism under the guise of serving the needs of the community, (c) by the commercial exploitation of psi phenomena, and (d) by the attempted premature application Of parapsychology by sincere practitioners in religion and medicine. "

An ambivalence is reflected in this article (which was one of the first attempts within parapsychology to perform this sort of evaluation). McConnell described several areas in which "the demands of the populace endanger parapsychology" - superstitious teachings within educational systems, mind-control courses, and some psychic healing practices. He simultaneously urged parapsychologists not to engage in public criticism of "those who most flagrantly misappropriate the name ‘parapsychologist."' Instead, McConnell argued for "the production of careful research, the maintenance of high standards in publication, and selectivity in admitting apprentices to our professional company." McConnell stated, "Out efforts must be creative rather than critical."

McConnell's article illustrates a hesitancy within parapsychology to provide ongoing critical examination and appraisal of the occult preferring to settle for a posture of aloof disdain and unexamined prejudice. Ironically, McConnell also evinces a surprising lack of self-awareness regarding the overlapping motivations between several occultists whom he cites and himself. For example, he argued against religious interpretations of parapsychology, and criticizes a scholar, Professor Jack Holland (1971), who suggests that true parapsychology should provide answers to ultimate questions. But then McConnell himself suggests that parapsychology might provide a means of answering questions such as: "What am I?" "Am I autonomous to some degree, or totally the creature of destiny?" "How do I relate to my fellow humans?" "What freedoms can I rightfully claim, and what must I sacrifice for the common good?"

Until recently, McConnell's stance has been accepted virtually without criticism in the parapsychology literature. Meanwhile, the hostile skeptics have continued to both point to the similarities of parapsychology and occultism and the failure of parapsychologists to distinguish between the merits of the scientific approach to psi and other approaches.

The schism within parapsychology is highlighted in the writings of Rex Stanford. In his presidential address before the Parapsychological Association, Stanford (1974) argued from the radical position that investigators "should endeavor personally to experience as many psi phenomena as they can" and should "study the practices and beliefs of magic, religion, and mysticism of diverse cultures and times as they relate to possible psi phenomena." Stanford's viewpoint is tied to the belief that parapsychologists have to rethink their basic conceptual framework, and that more "process-oriented research" is necessary to determine which variables could be correlated with psi. Stanford is arguing for greater scientific rigor, both experimentally and theoretically. This process, he feels, could be encouraged by more "inputs" from personal experience and the thoughtful evaluation of mystical traditions.

However, in a more recent paper titled, "Are We Shamans or Scientists?", Stanford argues that successful experimenters who have developed psi talents of their own are contaminating interpretation of their experimental data because of their abilities. Stanford acknowledges that there is theoretically "no way absolutely to rule out such shamanistic effects in our field." Nevertheless, he strongly urges the use of fixed lists of random numbers as experimental targets, instead of electronically generated random events, in order to reduce the possibility of experimenter PK on the targets. Stanford believes that such a maneuver, although it could not rule out a direct psi influence on the subject, could result in less noticeable differences between one experimenter and another. Even if fewer successful experiments were reported, results might be more meaningfully interpreted.

In my opinion, Stanford's newer position is based on wishful thinking. He has not fully come to grips with the experimenter effect. Process-oriented questions are important to ask; however, experimental tests of process-oriented hypotheses will always be confounded by the experimenter effect. Even more sophisticated experimental designs cannot avoid this. Yet, subjective disciplines and modes of inquiry may well provide deeper answers that will ultimately produce a greater quantity of reliable psi in the laboratory. This means we can turn the limitations of the experimenter effect to great advantage. This is an important and complex issue that will be discussed further.

In urging that experimenters study magic, mysticism, religion, and occultism, Stanford (1974) cautions researchers not to "naively adopt the beliefs in these areas for direct translation into hypotheses." He realizes that many of these beliefs are intangible metaphysical assertions (e.g. about deities), and that other beliefs would be highly implausible as hypotheses. He simply urges that such a study might "indirectly or directly Yield important clues about psi processes at the psychological level and perhaps at more basic levels." This distinction has been difficult for parapsychologists to live with-given the Outside pressure from critics who insist upon confusing the issues. Scholarly studies exploring such traditions have barely been given attention in the parapsychology literature, When attention has been given, the researcher is often confronted with the same existential/scholarly dilemma I described when Weaver (1963) confronted Rhine's data.

For example, David Read Barker (1979) reports that in the Tibetan culture there is "no word or concept which corresponds to the Western notion of ‘supernatural' or ‘paranormal.' . . . From the Tibetan's own viewpoint, there simply is no such thing as psi." Barker adds that the concept of PK also has little meaning for Tibetans because they regard the entire world as if it were "primarily psychokinetic, the creation of form by consciousness." In the following passage, Barker describes an apparent incident of PK and its personal impact on himself

"Probably the most dramatic expression of apparent PK in Tibet is weather control. I witnessed what appeared to be a demonstration of this in Dharamsala, India, on March 10, 1973, when a revered shaman-priest named Gunsang Rinzing was employed by the Dalai Lama to stop a huge storm long enough to permit a festival of mourning for the collapse in 1959 of the ancient Tibetan state.... Everywhere else in the area it continued to pout, but the crowd of several thousand refugees was never rained on during the six hours it was assembled. At one point a huge hailstorm caused a tremendous clatter on the tin-roofed buildings adjoining the festival grounds, but only a few dozen hailstones fell on the crowd. The atmosphere of the grounds seemed to have an "airless" quality, and the whole experience produced in me a feeling of distress and disorientation which persisted for weeks.

Very few parapsychologists have been willing and able to venture into the depths of esoteric traditions and then report back to their colleagues about the experience. Some of the rare instances when this has occurred are reported in subsequent chapters. Most parapsychologists have been afraid of being swept away by waves of irrationality. McConnell and McConnell (1971) describe the situation as "the wild sea of superstition on which the small boat of scientific objectivity is trying to navigate. "

That genuine prejudices have been active within the parapsychology community is made more clear in an article by John Beloff (1978) in the European Journal of Parapsychology titled, "The Limits of Parapsychology." In this article, Beloff, one of the most respected and conservative members of the parapsychological community, acknowledges that a careful look at the data is forcing him to reconsider whether such subjects as acupuncture, astrology, UFOs, and psychotronics should be partially included within the legitimate domain of parapsychology

Beloff describes his previous view of astrology as "that archetypal pseudo-science which I had always treated with contempt." Then he goes on to point out that the research of Michel Gauquelin (1977) conducted under rigorous conditions and "independently corroborated by skeptical, not to say hostile, committees (Beloff 1978)," is forcing him to reconsider the merits of at least some aspects of phenomena that are popularly labeled as "astrology."

Beloff describes parapsychological interest in UFOs in a similar manner: "Previously I was content to treat the UFO evidence in much the same dismissive way as the orthodox scientist treats the parapsychological evidence." Now Beloff concedes that the arguments of D. Scott Rogo (1977) convinced him that UFO phenomena are, indeed, of interest to parapsychologists. Beloff concluded his article by cautioning his colleagues against treating occult material "as too many straight scientists still treat the parapsychological evidence as beneath our notice."

John Palmer (1979), in his presidential address to the Parapsychological Association, took up Beloff's arguments and added that the "correspondence paradigm" of psi may define new topics of inquiry with parapsychology. "This implication," said Palmer, ". . . will force us to reexamine some long-held prejudices: Some of the synchronistic phenomena that will fall tinder our umbrella are now most commonly classified in that category we so disparagingly label ‘the occult."'

Palmer also points out the danger in such a move -- warning that the critics of parapsychology will "seize upon what they see as a new opportunity to link parapsychology with popular occultism, i.e., the anti-rational and anti-scientific." Palmer urges parapsychologists to resist the simplistic maneuvers of critics and also to "resist the temptation to avoid certain concepts and lines of research because of their political risks." This new wave of parapsychological thinking will be discussed in the final chapter.

Barker, D.R. Psi phenomena in Tibetan culture. In W.G. Roll (Ed.), Research in Parapsychology 1978. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1979.

Beloff, J. The limits of parapsychology. European Journal of Parapsychology, November 1978, 2(3), 291-303.

McConnell, R.A. Parapsychology and the occult. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, July 1973, 67(3), 225-243.

McConnell, R.A., and McConnell, T. Occult books at the University of Pittsburgh. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, July 1971, 65(3), 344-353.

Palmer, J. Parapsychology as a probabilistic science: Facing the implications. Presidential address, 22nd Annual Convention, Parapsychological Associations, John F. Kennedy University, 1979.

Rogo, D.S. The haunted universe. New York: New American Library, 1977.

Stanford, R. Concept and psi. In WG. Roll, R.L. Morris, and J.D. Morris (Eds.), Research in parapsychology, 1973, Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1974.

Weaver, W. Lady luck. New York: Doubleday, 1963.

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