The Green-Eyed Monster: Research on Jealousy

Sex differences in jealousy. Researchers examined in three studies whether sex differences in jealousy emerged in humans as solutions to the respective adaptive problems faced by each sex. Subjects were 566 undergraduates. In Study 1, subjects selected which event would upset them more, a partner's sexual infidelity (SI) or emotional infidelity (EI). Study 2 recorded physiological responses (heart rate, electrodermal response, corrugator supercilii contraction) while Ss imagined separately the 2 types of partner infidelity. Study 3 tested the effect of being in a committed sexual relationship on the activation of jealousy. Male Ss, especially those who had been in a committed sexual relationship, tended to react more strongly to SI, while female Ss tended to respond more strongly to EI. Sex differences generalized across psychological and physiological methods.[1]

Paternity uncertainty and male jealousy. In a classic study, Buss, Larson, Westen, and Semmelroth found that men were more distressed by the thought of a partner's sexual infidelity (labeled sexual jealousy) and women were more distressed by the thought of a partner's emotional infidelity (labeled emotional jealousy). Buss and his associates explained the results by suggesting that men are concerned about uncertainty of paternity, that is, the possibility of raising another man's child while believing that the child is their own. To test this explanation, the Desire for Children Scale was created. It was hypothesized that for men scores on this scale would correlate positively with scores on sexual jealousy. The Desire for Children Scale and the two Sexual vs Emotional Jealousy items of Buss and his associates were given to 49 men and 55 women college students enrolled in psychology courses. The hypothesis was confirmed and gives support to the uncertainty of paternity hypothesis.[2]

Jealousy and short-term sexual strategies. In a classic study, Buss, Larson, Westen, and Semmelroth reported that men were more distressed by the thought of a partner's sexual infidelity (sexual jealousy) and women were more distressed by the thought of a partner's emotional infidelity (emotional jealousy). Initially, Buss and his associates explained these results by suggesting that men are concerned about uncertainty of paternity, that is, the possibility of raising another man's child while believing the child is their own. However, later they explained the results in terms of men's preference for short-term sexual strategies. The purpose of this research was to test the explanation of short-term sexual strategies. Men and women subjects were instructed to imagine themselves in a relationship which was either short-term (primarily sexual) or long-term (involving commitment) and then respond to Buss's jealousy items. It was hypothesized that, when both men and women imagined a short-term relationship, they would be more threatened by a partner's sexual infidelity, and, when they imagined a long-term relationship, they would be more threatened by a partner's emotional infidelity. Support was found for this hypothesis.[3]

Processing of cues to infidelity. The hypothesis derived from the evolutionary view of jealousy that men's jealousy mechanism (JM) preferentially processes cues signaling a mate's sexual infidelity, whereas women's JM preferentially processes cues signaling a mate's emotional infidelity was tested. Depending on the condition, the participants were successively presented with a series of cues signaling either a mate's sexual or emotional infidelity in ascending order of cue diagnosticity. The participants had to determine two thresholds of the jealousy feeling. The first threshold dealt with the cue to infidelity that elicits a first pang of jealousy. The second threshold concerned that cue to infidelity where the intensity of the jealousy feeling becomes intolerable. No sex-specific differences were found with respect to the number of cues to sexual or emotional infidelity until the first threshold. However, after the first feeling of jealousy had been elicited, men needed significantly fewer cues to sexual infidelity and women needed significantly fewer cues to emotional infidelity until the second threshold. Moreover, men were significantly faster in determining the two thresholds for cues to sexual infidelity, whereas women were significantly faster for cues to emotional infidelity.[4]

Morbid jealousy & evolutionary psychology. Individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy have hypersensitive jealousy mechanisms that cause them to have irrational thoughts about their partner's fidelity and to exhibit extreme behaviors. Using a newly constructed database of 398 cases of morbid jealousy reported in the literature from 1940 to 2002, researchers tested four evolutionarily informed hypotheses about normally functioning jealousy mechanisms and applied them to this novel population of individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy. They hypothesized that a greater percentage of men than women diagnosed with morbid jealousy would be focused on a partner's sexual infidelity and on indicators of a rival's status and resources and that a greater percentage of women than men diagnosed with morbid jealousy would be focused on a partner's emotional infidelity and on indicators of a rival's youth and physical attractiveness. All four hypotheses were supported. The results suggest continuity between normal jealousy and morbid jealousy and highlight the heuristic value of using archival databases to test evolutionarily informed hypotheses.[5]

Evolutionary vs. cognitive explanations of sexual jealousy. Sex differences in romantic jealousy have been widely reported in the recent psychological literature. According to this literature, men are more likely than women to report being more distressed at sexual than emotional infidelity. There are two explanations for this difference: an evolutionary psychological and a social cognitive explanation. According to the evolutionary psychological account, men and women exhibit differences in jealousy because they faced different reproductive challenges during human evolution. According to the social cognitive account, men and women exhibit these differences because they have been socialised to believe that attachment and sex are weighted differently by each gender. In this study, 268 participants completed a questionnaire designed to compare predictions based on these two theories. The results are generally consistent with the evolutionary account. Men are more distressed by sexual infidelity than by emotional infidelity, and this is not accounted for by beliefs about jealousy that they hold about men, women or themselves.[6]

Jealousy among swinging couples. Swinging involves consensual mutual involvement in extra-dyadic sex. Jealousy in swinging couples is an interesting topic for social psychological research, because it is a common and acceptable response to a romantic partner's real or imagined infidelity. This qualitative study examined the management of jealousy among four active heterosexual swinging couples living in southern England. Participants highlighted the importance of discussion and negotiation to develop a shared couple identity and shared rules and boundaries that allowed them to manage jealousy so that they could better enjoy swinging. Rather than seeking to eliminate jealousy, swingers may manage their feelings of jealousy in order to increase sexual excitement and arousal.[7]

College men and jealousy. Two-hundred ninety-one undergraduates at a large southeastern university completed a confidential, anonymous forty-four- item questionnaire on jealousy. Men reacted differently than women when jealous; they were significantly more likely to turn to alcohol and to believe that the more jealous they were (and maybe expressed this violently), the more they showed their love. Social learning theory provides insights into these findings in that men are socialized to use alcohol to reduce unpleasant feelings rather than turn to friends. They are also socialized to react with anger/revenge when hurt.[8]

Jealousy evoking characteristics of a sexual rival. This study examined the role of waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and shoulder-to-hip ratio (SHR) of the rival in evoking jealousy in an adult sample of 70 men and 69 women. Women paid more attention to the rivals' waist, hips, and hair, and men paid more attention to the rivals' shoulders. Potential rivals with a low as opposed to a high waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) evoked more jealousy in women than in men, particularly among women with a low WHR. Among women, the low WHR-high SHR rival the V-type body build evoked the highest level of jealousy and was perceived as most attractive and the most socially and physically dominant. In contrast, among men the low WHR-low SHR rival, that is, a rival with a linear and slender body build, evoked the highest level of jealousy and was perceived as the most attractive and socially dominant, but not as the most physically dominant. As men were older, the SHR of the rival was a less important factor in evoking jealousy, whereas among women jealousy in response to the rival's WHR was not affected by age.[9]